1. fc17.ifca.ai
Matthew Smith, Daniel Moser, Martin Strohmeier, Vincent Lenders, Ivan Martinovic

Recent research has shown that a number of existing wireless avionic systems lack encryption and are thus vulnerable to eavesdropping and message injection attacks. The Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS) is no exception to this rule with 99% of the traffic being sent in plaintext. However, a small portion of the traffic coming mainly from privately-owned and government aircraft is encrypted, indicating a stronger requirement for security and privacy by those users. In this paper, we take a closer look at this protected communication and analyze the cryptographic solution being used. Our results show that the cipher used for this encryption is a mono-alphabetic substitution cipher, broken with little effort. We assess the impact on privacy and security to its unassuming users by characterizing months of real-world data, decrypted by breaking the cipher and recovering the keys. Our results show that the decrypted data leaks privacy sensitive information including existence, intent and status of aircraft owners.

2. fc17.ifca.ai
Helger Lipmaa, Kateryna Pavlyk

In PETS 2015, Kiayias, Leonardos, Lipmaa, Pavlyk, and Tang proposed the first (n, 1)-CPIR protocol with rate 1−𝑜(1). They use advanced techniques from multivariable calculus (like the Newton-Puiseux algorithm) to establish optimal rate among a large family of different CPIR protocols. It is only natural to ask whether one can achieve similar rate but with a much simpler analysis. We propose parameters to the earlier (n, 1)-CPIR protocol of Lipmaa (ISC 2005), obtaining a CPIR protocol that is asymptotically almost as communication-efficient as the protocol of Kiayias et al. However, for many relevant parameter choices, it is slightly more communication-efficient, due to the cumulative rounding errors present in the protocol of Kiayias et al. Moreover, the new CPIR protocol is simpler to understand, implement, and analyze. The new CPIR protocol can be used to implement (computationally inefficient) FHE with rate 1−𝑜(1).

3. fc17.ifca.ai
Tom Chothia, Flavio Garcia, Christopher Heppel, Christopher McMahon-Stone

This paper presents a security review of the mobile apps provided by the UK’s leading banks; we focus on the connections the apps make, and the way in which TLS is used. We apply existing TLS testing methods to the apps which only find errors in legacy apps. We then go on to look at extensions of these methods and find five of the apps have serious vulnerabilities. In particular, we find an app that pins a TLS root CA certificate, but do not verify the hostname. In this case, the use of certificate pinning means that all existing test methods would miss detecting the hostname verification flaw. We also find one app that doesn’t check the certificate hostname, but bypasses proxy settings, resulting in failed detection by pentesting tools. We find that three apps load adverts over insecure connections, which could be exploited for in-app phishing attacks. Some of the apps used the users’ PIN as authentication, for which PCI guidelines require extra security, so these apps use an additional cryptographic protocol; we study the underlying protocol of one banking app in detail and show that it provides little additional protection, meaning that an active man-in-the-middle attacker can retrieve the user’s credentials, login to the bank and perform every operation the legitimate user could.

4. fc17.ifca.ai
Karthikeyan Bhargavan, Antoine Delignat-Lavaud, Nadim Kobeissi

Web traffic encryption has shifted from applying only to highly sensitive websites (such as banks) to a majority of all Web requests. Until recently, one of the main limiting factors for enabling HTTPS is the requirement to obtain a valid certificate from a trusted certification authority, a tedious process that typically involves fees and ad-hoc key generation, certificate request and domain validation procedures. To remove this barrier of entry, the Internet Security Research Group created Let’s Encrypt, a new non-profit certificate authority which uses a new protocol called Automatic Certificate Management Environment (ACME) to automate certificate management at all levels (request, validation , issuance, renewal, and revocation) between clients (website operators) and servers (certificate authority nodes). Let’s Encrypt’s success is measured by its issuance of over 12 million free certificates since its launch in April 2016. In this paper, we survey the existing process for issuing domain-validated certificates in major certification authorities to build a security model of domain-validated certificate issuance. We then model the ACME protocol in the applied pi-calculus and verify its stated security goals against our threat model of domain validation. We compare the effective security of different domain validation methods and show that ACME can be secure under a stronger threat model than that of traditional CAs. We also uncover weaknesses in some flows of ACME 1.0 and propose verified improvements that have been adopted in the latest protocol draft submitted to the IETF.

5. fc17.ifca.ai
Yevgeniy Dodis, Dario Fiore

Key Exchange (KE), which enables two parties (e.g., a client and a server) to securely establish a common private key while communicating over an insecure channel, is one of the most fundamental cryptographic primitives. In this work, we address the setting of unilaterally-authenticated key exchange (UAKE), where an unauthenticated (unkeyed) client establishes a key with an authenticated (keyed) server. This setting is highly motivated by many practical uses of KE on the Internet, but received relatively little attention so far.

Unlike the prior work, defining UAKE by downgrading a relatively complex definition of mutually authenticated key exchange (MAKE), our definition follows the opposite approach of upgrading existing definitions of public key encryption (PKE) and signatures towards UAKE. As a result, our new definition is short and easy to understand. Nevertheless, we show that it is equivalent to the UAKE definition of Bellare-Rogaway (when downgraded from MAKE), and thus captures a very strong and widely adopted security notion, while looking very similar to the simple one-oracle’’ definition of traditional PKE/signature schemes. As a benefit of our intuitive framework, we show two exactly-as-you-expect (i.e., having no caveats so abundant in the KE literature!) UAKE protocols from (possibly interactive) signature and encryption. By plugging various one- or two-round signature and encryption schemes, we derive provably-secure variants of various well-known UAKE protocols (such as a unilateral variant of SKEME with and without perfect forward secrecy, and Shoup’s A-DHKE-1), as well as new protocols, such as the first 2-round UAKE protocol which is both (passively) forward deniable and forward-secure.

To further clarify the intuitive connections between PKE/Signatures and UAKE, we define and construct stronger forms of (necessarily interactive) PKE/Signature schemes, called confirmed encryption and confidential authentication, which, respectively, allow the sender to obtain confirmation that the (keyed) receiver output the correct message, or to hide the content of the message being authenticated from anybody but the participating (unkeyed) receiver. Using confirmed PKE/confidential authentication, we obtain two concise UAKE protocols of the form: send confirmed encryption/confidential authentication of a random key K
.’’

6. fc17.ifca.ai
Ryan Stanley-Oakes

Cryptographic APIs like PKCS#11 are interfaces to trusted hardware where keys are stored; the secret keys should never leave the trusted hardware in plaintext. In PKCS#11 it is possible to give keys conflicting roles, leading to a number of key-recovery attacks. To prevent these attacks, one can authenticate the attributes of keys when wrapping, but this is not standard in PKCS#11. Alternatively, one can configure PKCS#11 to place additional restrictions on the commands permitted by the API.

Bortolozzo et al. proposed a configuration of PKCS#11, called the Secure Templates Patch (STP), supporting symmetric encryption and key wrapping. However, the security guarantees for STP given by Bortolozzo et al. are with respect to a weak attacker model. STP has been implemented as a set of filtering rules in Caml Crush, a software filter for PKCS#11 that rejects certain API calls. The filtering rules in Caml Crush extend STP by allowing users to compute and verify MACs and so the previous analysis of STP does not apply to this configuration.

We give a rigorous analysis of STP, including the extension used in Caml Crush. Our contribution is as follows:

(i) We show that the extension of STP used in Caml Crush is insecure.

(ii) We propose a strong, computational security model for configurations of PKCS#11 where the adversary can adaptively corrupt keys and prove that STP is secure in this model.

(iii) We prove the security of an extension of STP that adds support for public-key encryption and digital signatures.

7. fc17.ifca.ai
Wakaha Ogata, Kaoru Kurosawa

In the model of “no-dictionary” verifiable searchable symmetric encryption (SSE) scheme, a client does not need to keep the set of keywords W in the search phase, where W is called a dictionary. Still a malicious server cannot cheat the client by saying that your search word w does not exist in the dictionary W” when it exists. In the previous such schemes, it takes O(logm) time for the server to prove that w∉W, where m=|W| is the number of keywords. In this paper, we show a generic method to transform any SSE scheme (that is only secure against passive adversaries) to a no-dictionary verifiable SSE scheme. In the transformed scheme, it takes only O(1) time for the server to prove that w∉W.

8. fc17.ifca.ai

Isolated Execution Environments (IEE) offered by novel commodity hardware such as Intel’s SGX deployed in Skylake processors permit executing software in a protected environment that shields it from a malicious operating system; it also permits a remote user to obtain strong interactive attestation guarantees on both the code running in an IEE and its input/output behaviour. In this paper we show how IEEs provide a new path to constructing general secure multiparty computation (MPC) protocols. Our protocol is intuitive and elegant: it uses code within an IEE to play the role of a trusted third party (TTP), and the attestation guarantees of SGX to bootstrap secure communications between participants and the TTP. In our protocol the load of communications and computations on participants only depends on the size of each party’s inputs and outputs and is thus small and independent from the intricacy of the functionality to be computed. The remaining computational load– essentially that of computing the functionality – is moved to an untrusted party running an IEE-enabled machine, an appealing feature for Cloud-based scenarios. However, as often the case even with the simplest cryptographic protocols, we found that there is a large gap between this intuitively appealing solution and a protocol with rigorous security guarantees. We bridge this gap through a comprehensive set of results that include: i. a detailed construction of a protocol for secure computation for arbitrary functionalities; ii. formal security definitions for the security of the overall protocol and that of its components; and iii. a modular security analysis of our protocol that relies on a novel notion of labeled attested computation. We implemented and extensively evaluated our solution on SGX-enabled hardware, providing detailed measurements of our protocol as well as comparisons with software-only MPC solutions. Furthermore, we show the cost induced by using constant-time, i.e., timing side channel resilient, code in our implementation.

9. fc17.ifca.ai

Blind signatures are at the core of e-cash systems and have numerous other applications. In this work we construct efficient blind and partially blind signature schemes over bilinear groups in the standard model. Our schemes yield short signatures consisting of only a couple of elements from the shorter source group and have very short communication overhead consisting of 1 group element on the user side and 3 group elements on the signer side. At 80-bit security, our schemes yield signatures consisting of only 40 bytes which is 67% shorter than the most efficient existing scheme with the same security in the standard model. Verification in our schemes requires only a couple of pairings. Our schemes compare favorably in every efficiency measure to all existing counterparts offering the same security in the standard model. In fact, the efficiency of our signing protocol as well as the signature size compare favorably even to many existing schemes in the random oracle model. For instance, our signatures are shorter than those of Brands’ scheme which is at the heart of the U-Prove anonymous credential system used in practice. The unforgeability of our schemes is based on new intractability assumptions of a one-more’’ type which we show are intractable in the generic group model, whereas their blindness holds w.r.t.~malicious signing keys in the information-theoretic sense. We also give variants of our schemes for a vector of messages.

10. fc17.ifca.ai
Albrecht Petzoldt, Alan Szepieniec, Mohamed Saied Emam Mohamed

Multivariate Cryptography is one of the main candidates for creating post-quantum cryptosystems. Especially in the area of digital signatures, there exist many practical and secure multivariate schemes. However, there is a lack of multivariate signature schemes with special properties such as blind, ring and group signatures. In this paper, we propose a generic technique to transform multivariate signature schemes into blind signature schemes and show the practicality of the construction on the example of Rainbow. The resulting scheme satisfies the usual blindness criterion and a one-more-unforgeability criterion adapted to MQ signatures, produces short blind signatures and is very efficient.

11. fc17.ifca.ai
Aanchal Malhotra, Matthew Van Gundy, Mayank Varia, Haydn Kennedy, Jonathan Gardner, Sharon Goldberg

For decades, the Network Time Protocol (NTP) has been used to synchronize computer clocks over untrusted network paths. This work takes a new look at the security of NTP’s datagram protocol. We argue that NTP’s datagram protocol in RFC5905 is both underspecified and flawed. The NTP specifications do not sufficiently respect (1) the conflicting security requirements of different NTP modes, and (2) the mechanism NTP uses to prevent off-path attacks. A further problem is that (3) NTP’s control-query interface reveals sensitive information that can be exploited in off-path attacks. We exploit these problems in several attacks that remote attackers can use to maliciously alter a target’s time. We use network scans to find millions of IPs that are vulnerable to our attacks. Finally, we move beyond identifying attacks by developing a cryptographic model and using it to prove the security of a new backwards-compatible client/server protocol for NTP.

Abdelrahaman Aly, Aysajan Abidin, and Svetla Nikova

Bit-decomposition is a powerful tool which can be used to design constant round protocols for bit-oriented multiparty computation (MPC) problems, such as comparison and Hamming weight computation. However, protocols that involve bit-decomposition are expensive in terms of performance. In this paper, we introduce a set of protocols for distributed exponentiation without bit-decomposition. We improve upon the current state-of-the-art by Ning and Xu [1, 2], in terms of round and multiplicative complexity. We consider different cases where the inputs are either private or public and present privacy-preserving protocols for each case. Our protocols offer perfect security against passive and active adversaries and have constant multiplicative and round complexity, for any fixed number of parties. Furthermore, we showcase how these primitives can be used, for instance, to perform secure distributed decryption for some public key schemes, that are based on modular exponentiation.

13. eprint.iacr.org
Vladimir Kolesnikov and Mike Rosulek and Ni Trieu

Suppose a server holds a long text string and a receiver holds a short pattern string. Secure pattern matching allows the receiver to learn the locations in the long text where the pattern appears, while leaking nothing else to either party besides the length of their inputs. In this work we consider secure wildcard pattern matching WPM, where the receiver’s pattern is allowed to contain wildcards that match to any character.

We present SWiM, a simple and fast protocol for WPM that is heavily based on oblivious transfer (OT) extension. As such, the protocol requires only a small constant number of public-key operations and otherwise uses only very fast symmetric-key primitives. SWiM is secure against semi-honest adversaries. We implemented a prototype of our protocol to demonstrate its practicality. We can perform WPM on a DNA text (4-character alphabet) of length 10^5
and pattern of length 10^3 in just over 2 seconds, which is over two orders of magnitude faster than the state-of-the-art scheme of Baron et al. (SCN 2012).

14. eprint.iacr.org
Amanda Cristina Davi Resende and Diego de Freitas Aranha

Protocols for Private Set Intersection (PSI) are important cryptographic primitives that perform joint operations on datasets in a privacy-preserving way. They allow two parties to compute the intersection of their private sets without revealing any additional information beyond the intersection itself. Unfortunately, PSI implementations in the literature do not usually employ the best possible cryptographic implementation techniques. This results in protocols presenting computational and communication complexities that are prohibitive, particularly in the case when one of the participants is a low-powered device and there are bandwidth restrictions. This paper builds on modern cryptographic engineering techniques and proposes optimizations for a promising one-way PSI protocol based on public-key cryptography. For the case when one of the parties holds a set much smaller than the other (a realistic assumption in many scenarios) we show that our improvements and optimizations yield a protocol that outperforms the communication complexity and the run time of previous proposals by around one thousand times.

15. eprint.iacr.org
Christina Boura and Ilaria Chillotti and Nicolas Gama and Dimitar Jetchev and Stanislav Peceny and Alexander Petric

We propose a novel multi-party computation protocol for evaluating continuous real-valued functions with high numerical precision. Our method is based on approximations with Fourier series and uses at most two rounds of communication during the online phase. For the offline phase, we propose a trusted-dealer and honest-but-curious aided solution, respectively. We apply our algorithm to train a logistic regression classifier via a variant of Newton’s method (known as IRLS) to compute unbalanced classification problems that detect rare events and cannot be solved using previously proposed privacy-preserving optimization algorithms (e.g., based on piecewise-linear approximations of the sigmoid function). Our protocol is efficient as it can be implemented using standard quadruple-precision floating point arithmetic. We report multiple experiments and provide a demo application that implements our algorithm for training a logistic regression model.

16. fc18.ifca.ai
Ian Martiny, Ian Miers, and Eric Wustrow

Content providers often face legal or economic pressures to censor or remove objectionable or infringing content they host. While decentralized providers can enable censorship-resistant storage, centralized content providers remain popular for performance and usability reasons. But centralized content providers can always choose not to respond to requests for a specific file, making it difficult to prevent censorship. If it is not possible to prevent, is it possible to detect and punish censorship on a centralized service?

A natural approach is to periodically audit the service provider by downloading the file. However, failure to download a file is not a proof of censorship. First, the provider could claim benign failure. Second, the proof is non-transferable: verifying censorship requires third parties to individually request the censored file. Moreover, a content provider may only selectively deny access to particular users or only for a short time frame. As such, checking by downloading does not work even for third parties who are online and willing to make queries.

In this paper, we introduce proof of censorship, whereby a content provider cannot delete or otherwise selectively remove content from their service without creating transferable cryptographic proof of their misdeed. Even if the provider restores the file at a later date, the proof remains valid, allowing the reputation of a content provider’s commitment to censorship resistance to be based on the existence (or absence) of such proofs.

17. arxiv.org
George Kadianakis, Claudia V. Roberts, Laura M. Roberts, and Philipp Winter

In its more than ten years of existence, the Tor network has seen hundreds of thousands of relays come and go. Each relay maintains several RSA keys, amounting to millions of keys, all archived by The Tor Project. In this paper, we analyze 3.7 million RSA public keys of Tor relays. We (i) check if any relays share prime factors or moduli, (ii) identify relays that use non-standard exponents, (iii) characterize malicious relays that we discovered in the first two steps, and (iv) develop a tool that can determine what onion services fell prey to said malicious relays. Our experiments revealed that ten relays shared moduli and 3,557 relays – almost all part of a research project – shared prime factors, allowing adversaries to reconstruct private keys. We further discovered 122 relays that used non-standard RSA exponents, presumably in an attempt to attack onion services. By simulating how onion services are positioned in Tor’s distributed hash table, we identified four onion services that were targeted by these malicious relays. Our work provides both The Tor Project and onion service operators with tools to identify misconfigured and malicious Tor relays to stop attacks before they pose a threat to Tor users.

18. fc17.ifca.ai
Leonid Reyzin, Dmitry Meshkov, Alexander Chepurnoy, Sasha Ivanov

We improve the design and implementation of two-party and three-party authenticated dynamic dictionaries and apply these dictionaries to cryptocurrency ledgers.

A public ledger (blockchain) in a cryptocurrency needs to be easily verifiable. However, maintaining a data structure of all account balances, in order to verify whether a transaction is valid, can be quite burdensome: a verifier who does not have the large amount of RAM required for the data structure will perform slowly because of the need to continually access secondary storage. We demonstrate experimentally that authenticated dynamic dictionaries can considerably reduce verifier load. On the other hand, per-transaction proofs generated by authenticated dictionaries increase the size of the blockchain, which motivates us to find a solution with most compact proofs.

Our improvements to the design of authenticated dictionaries reduce proof size and speed up verification by 1.4-2.5 times, making them better suited for the cryptocurrency application. We further show that proofs for multiple transactions in a single block can compressed together, reducing their total length by approximately an additional factor of 2.

We simulate blockchain verification, and show that our verifier can be about 20 times faster than a disk-bound verifier under a realistic transaction load.

19. fc17.ifca.ai
Patrick McCorry, Siamak Shahandashti, Feng Hao

We present the first implementation of a decentralised and self-tallying internet voting protocol with maximum voter privacy using the Blockchain. The Open Vote Network is suitable for boardroom elec- tions and is written as a smart contract for Ethereum. Unlike previously proposed Blockchain e-voting protocols, this is the first implementation that does not rely on any trusted authority to compute the tally or to protect the voter’s privacy. Instead, the Open Vote Network is a self- tallying protocol, and each voter is in control of the privacy of their own vote such that it can only be breached by a full collusion involving all other voters. The execution of the protocol is enforced using the consensus mechanism that also secures the Ethereum blockchain. We tested the implementation on Ethereum’s official test network to demonstrate its feasibility. Also, we provide a financial and computational breakdown of its execution cost.

20. fc17.ifca.ai
Orfeas Stefanos, Thyfronitis Litos, Dionysis Zindros

Centralized reputation systems use stars and reviews and thus require algorithm secrecy to avoid manipulation. In autonomous open source decentralized systems this luxury is not available. We create a reputation network for decentralized marketplaces where the trust each user gives to the other users is quantifiable and expressed in monetary terms. We introduce a new model for bitcoin wallets in which user coins are split among trusted associates. Direct trust is defined using shared bitcoin accounts via bitcoin’s 1-of-2 multisig. Indirect trust is subsequently defined transitively. This enables formal game theoretic arguments pertaining to risk analysis. We prove that risk and maximum flows are equivalent in our model and that our system is Sybil-resilient. Our system allows for concrete financial decisions on the subjective monetary amount a pseudonymous party can be trusted with. Risk remains invariant under a direct trust redistribution operation followed by a purchase.

21. fc17.ifca.ai
Steven Goldfeder, Joseph Bonneau, Rosario Gennaro, Arvind Narayanan

We consider the problem of buying physical goods with cryptocurrencies. There is an inherent circular dependency: should be the buyer trust the seller and pay before receiving the goods or should the seller trust the buyer and ship the goods before receiving payment? This dilemma is addressed in practice using a third party escrow service. However, we show that naive escrow protocols introduce both privacy and security issues. We formalize the escrow problem and present a suite of schemes with improved security and privacy properties. Our schemes are compatible with Bitcoin and similar blockchain-based cryptocurrencies.

22. fc17.ifca.ai
Gunnar Hartung

We present four attacks on three cryptographic schemes in-tended for securing log files against illicit retroactive modification. Our first two attacks regard the LogFAS scheme by Yavuz et al. (FinancialCryptography 2012), whereas our third and fourth attacks break the BM-and AR-FssAgg schemes by Ma (AsiaCCS 2008).All schemes have an accompanying security proof, seemingly contradicting the existence of attacks. We point out flaws in these proofs, resolvingthe contradiction.

23. fc17.ifca.ai
Reihaneh Safavi-Naini, Viliam Lisy, Yvo Desmedt

Cryptographic authentication protects messages against forgeries. In real life, messages carry information of different value and the gain of the adversary in a successful forgery and the corresponding cost of the system designers, depend on the “meaning” of the message. This is easy to see by comparing the successful forgery of a $1,000 transaction with the forgery of a$1 one. Cryptographic protocols require computation and increase communication cost of the system, and an economically optimal system must optimize these costs such that message protection be commensurate to their values. This is especially important for resource limited devices that rely on battery power. A MAC (Message Authentication Code) provides protection by appending a cryptographic tag to the message. For secure MACs, the tag length is the main determinant of the security level: longer tags provide higher protection and at the same time increase the communication cost of the system. Our goal is to find the economically optimal tag lengths when messages carry information of different values.

We propose a novel approach to model the cost and benefit of information authentication as a two-party extensive-form game, show how to find a Nash equilibrium for the game, and determine the optimal tag lengths for messages. We prove that computing an optimal solution for the game is NP-complete, and then show how to find an optimal solution using single Mixed Integer Linear Program (MILP). We apply the approach to the protection of messages in an industrial control system using realistic messages, and give our analysis with numerical results obtained using off-the-shelf IBM CPLEX solver.

24. fc17.ifca.ai
Helger Lipmaa

Given a well-chosen additively homomorphic cryptosystem and a Σ protocol with a linear answer, Damgård, Fazio, and Nicolosi proposed a non-interactive designated-verifier zero knowledge argument in the registered public key model that is sound under non-standard complexity-leveraging assumptions. In 2015, Chaidos and Groth showed how to achieve the weaker yet reasonable culpable soundness notion under standard assumptions but only if the plaintext space order is prime. It makes use of Σ protocols that satisfy what we call the \emph{optimal culpable soundness}. Unfortunately, most of the known additively homomorphic cryptosystems (like the Paillier Elgamal cryptosystem that is secure under the standard Decisional Composite Residuosity Assumption) have composite-order plaintext space. We construct optimally culpable sound Σ protocols and thus culpably sound non-interactive designated-verifier zero knowledge protocols for NP under standard assumptions given that the least prime divisor of the plaintext space order is large.

25. eprint.iacr.org
Muslum Ozgur Ozmen, Rouzbeh Behnia and Attila A. Yavuz

An attempt to derive signer-efficient digital signatures from aggregate signatures was made in a signature scheme referred to as Structure-free Compact Rapid Authentication (SCRA) (IEEE TIFS 2017). In this paper, we first mount a practical universal forgery attack against the NTRU instantiation of SCRA by observing only 8161 signatures. Second, we propose a new signature scheme (FAAS), which transforms any single-signer aggregate signature scheme into a signer-efficient scheme. We show two efficient instantiations of FAAS, namely, FAAS-NTRU and FAAS-RSA, both of which achieve high computational efficiency. Our experiments confirmed that FAAS schemes achieve up to 100x faster signature generation compared to their underlying schemes. Moreover, FAAS schemes eliminate some of the costly operations such as Gaussian sampling, rejection sampling, and exponentiation at the signature generation that are shown to be susceptible to side-channel attacks. This enables FAAS schemes to enhance the security and efficiency of their underlying schemes. Finally, we prove that FAAS schemes are secure (in random oracle model), and open-source both our attack and FAAS implementations for public testing purposes.